Chemistry Water Pollution Phosphates In Water Pollution Phosphates Ma

Chemistry: Water Pollution Phosphates in Water Pollution Phosphates may be created by substituting some or all of the hydrogen of a phosphoric acid by metals. Depending on the number of hydrogen atoms that are replaced, the resulting compound is described as a primary, secondary or tertiary phosphate. Primary and secondary phosphates contain hydrogen and are acid salts. Secondary and tertiary phosphates, with the exception of those of sodium, potassium and ammonium are insoluble in water. Tertiary sodium phosphate is valuable as a detergent and water softener. The primary phosphates tend to be more soluble. Phosphates, which are an important component to metabolism in both plants and animals, help in the first step in oxidation of glucose in the body. Primary calcium phosphate is an ingredient of plant fertilizer. Phosphates have caused increasing attention recently. The focus is on the environmentally harmful effects in household detergents. Wastewater, from laundering agents, con tains phosphates, which are said to be a water pollutant. Most laundry detergents contain approximately 35% to 75% sodium triphosphate (Na5P3O10), which serves two purposes. Providing an alkaline solution (pH 9.0 to 10.5) is necessary for effective cleansing and also to tie up calcium and magnesium ions found in natural waters and prevent them from interfering with the cleansing role of the detergent. Eutrophication is the progressive over-fertilization of water, in which festering masses of algae's blooms, choking rivers and lakes. Phosphorus compounds act as a fertilizer for all plant life, whether free-floating algae or more substantial rooted weeds, and are implicated in eutrophication. Many countries control phosphate levels, whereas Switzerland has banned the use of phosphates. The marine environment is both fragile and more resistant than the terrestrial ecosystem. It is fragile for the reasons that nutrients are generally present in very low concentrations, permanently consu med by living organisms and pollutants diffuse rapidly. Lakes and rivers are extremely complex ecosystems. Nutrients are taken up by both algae and rooted weeds. The weeds act as a shelter for fish larvae and zooplankton, both of which eat algae and are, in turn, eaten by larger fish. Scientists have concluded that unpolluted lakes can absorb surprisingly large amounts of phosphates without uncertainty. When a fertilizer, such as a phosphate, is added more algae will grow, and consequently will the populations of zooplankton and fish. Difficulties only arise when the lake is already impure. Zooplankton are sensitive to their environment and many substances are toxic to them. If any of these substances, including phosphates, are present the zooplankton population cannot increase. Adding phosphates to this polluted system will case algae growth. The floating masses cut off the light supply. Weeds die and decompose using up dissolved oxygen, and causing sulfurous smells and plagues. De prived of shelter and food, the fish larvae starve. The lake is well on the way to catastrophe. Without wetlands there would be a minimal amount of fresh drinking water due to the fact that wetlands filter the waters of our lakes, rivers and streams, sequentially reducing contamination of water. The plant growth in wetlands removes phosphates and other plant nutrients washed in from the surrounding soil, consequently restricting the growth of algae and aquatic weeds. This growth is a serious problem in some of Canada's major waterways, where dead and decaying algae deprive the deeper waters of their oxygen. Researches at Lancaster University have studied lakes whose plant and animal life has been killed by acid rain. The excess acid in the lakes can be neutralized easily by adding lime, but this makes the waters rich in calcium. Life will gradually return to the lake but, as these lakes should have low calcium levels, it will not be the same kind of life that existed in lakes befor e pollution. The answer, they have concluded, is to add phosphates. These phosphates work by shielding the water. This depends upon nitrate ions in the lake. Contradictory, these ions also are produced by acid rain, contain oxides of nitrogen from combustion sources. These fertilizers do not alter the pH level of the water. Instead, they stimulate the growth of plants. The plants absorb the dissolved nitrates, generating hydroxide ions, which in return neutralize the excess acid. Removal of phosphates from detergent is not likely Chemistry Water Pollution Phosphates In Water Pollution Phosphates Ma Chemistry: Water Pollution Phosphates in Water Pollution Phosphates may be created by substituting some or all of the hydrogen of a phosphoric acid by metals. Depending on the number of hydrogen atoms that are replaced, the resulting compound is described as a primary, secondary or tertiary phosphate. Primary and secondary phosphates contain hydrogen and are acid salts. Secondary and tertiary phosphates, with the exception of those of sodium, potassium and ammonium are insoluble in water. Tertiary sodium phosphate is valuable as a detergent and water softener. The primary phosphates tend to be more soluble. Phosphates, which are an important component to metabolism in both plants and animals, help in the first step in oxidation of glucose in the body. Primary calcium phosphate is an ingredient of plant fertilizer. Phosphates have caused increasing attention recently. The focus is on the environmentally harmful effects in household detergents. Wastewater, from laundering agents, con tains phosphates, which are said to be a water pollutant. Most laundry detergents contain approximately 35% to 75% sodium triphosphate (Na5P3O10), which serves two purposes. Providing an alkaline solution (pH 9.0 to 10.5) is necessary for effective cleansing and also to tie up calcium and magnesium ions found in natural waters and prevent them from interfering with the cleansing role of the detergent. Eutrophication is the progressive over-fertilization of water, in which festering masses of algae's blooms, choking rivers and lakes. Phosphorus compounds act as a fertilizer for all plant life, whether free-floating algae or more substantial rooted weeds, and are implicated in eutrophication. Many countries control phosphate levels, whereas Switzerland has banned the use of phosphates. The marine environment is both fragile and more resistant than the terrestrial ecosystem. It is fragile for the reasons that nutrients are generally present in very low concentrations, permanently consu med by living organisms and pollutants diffuse rapidly. Lakes and rivers are extremely complex ecosystems. Nutrients are taken up by both algae and rooted weeds. The weeds act as a shelter for fish larvae and zooplankton, both of which eat algae and are, in turn, eaten by larger fish. Scientists have concluded that unpolluted lakes can absorb surprisingly large amounts of phosphates without uncertainty. When a fertilizer, such as a phosphate, is added more algae will grow, and consequently will the populations of zooplankton and fish. Difficulties only arise when the lake is already impure. Zooplankton are sensitive to their environment and many substances are toxic to them. If any of these substances, including phosphates, are present the zooplankton population cannot increase. Adding phosphates to this polluted system will case algae growth. The floating masses cut off the light supply. Weeds die and decompose using up dissolved oxygen, and causing sulfurous smells and plagues. De prived of shelter and food, the fish larvae starve. The lake is well on the way to catastrophe. Without wetlands there would be a minimal amount of fresh drinking water due to the fact that wetlands filter the waters of our lakes, rivers and streams, sequentially reducing contamination of water. The plant growth in wetlands removes phosphates and other plant nutrients washed in from the surrounding soil, consequently restricting the growth of algae and aquatic weeds. This growth is a serious problem in some of Canada's major waterways, where dead and decaying algae deprive the deeper waters of their oxygen. Researches at Lancaster University have studied lakes whose plant and animal life has been killed by acid rain. The excess acid in the lakes can be neutralized easily by adding lime, but this makes the waters rich in calcium. Life will gradually return to the lake but, as these lakes should have low calcium levels, it will not be the same kind of life that existed in lakes befor e pollution. The answer, they have concluded, is to add phosphates. These phosphates work by shielding the water. This depends upon nitrate ions in the lake. Contradictory, these ions also are produced by acid rain, contain oxides of nitrogen from combustion sources. These fertilizers do not alter the pH level of the water. Instead, they stimulate the growth of plants. The plants absorb the dissolved nitrates, generating hydroxide ions, which in return neutralize the excess acid. Removal of phosphates from detergent is not likely

Analyzing the Determinants of CEO’s Remuneration

Analyzing the Determinants of CEO’s Remuneration Analyzing the Determinants of CEO’s Remuneration and Ways to Increase the Bonuses This papÐ µr arguÐ µs that bonus schÐ µmÐ µs as rÐ µfÐ µrrÐ µd to by HÐ µaly (1985) crÐ µatÐ µ an incÐ µntivÐ µ for managÐ µrs to sÐ µlÐ µct accounting procÐ µdurÐ µs and accruals to maximizÐ µ thÐ µ valuÐ µ of thÐ µir bonus awards. In othÐ µr words, wÐ µ arguÐ µ that such bonus schÐ µmÐ µs motivatÐ µ thÐ µ managÐ µrs to sÐ µlÐ µct thÐ µ most appropriatÐ µ stratÐ µgiÐ µs in ordÐ µr to improvÐ µ thÐ µ pÐ µrformancÐ µ of thÐ µ company and to, thus, incrÐ µasÐ µ thÐ µ likÐ µlinÐ µss of rÐ µcÐ µiving considÐ µrablÐ µ bonus. Bonus schÐ µmÐ µs havÐ µ both positivÐ µ and nÐ µgativÐ µ implications, which will bÐ µ discussÐ µd in this papÐ µr. WÐ µ havÐ µ to notÐ µ that thÐ µrÐ µ arÐ µ commonly accÐ µptÐ µd incÐ µntivÐ µs for managÐ µrs to smooth rÐ µportÐ µd Ð µarnings, that is to rÐ µducÐ µ Ð µarnings unprÐ µdictability. SupÐ µrvisors gÐ µnÐ µrally havÐ µ poorly sprÐ µad human capital portfolios, and a grÐ µat portion of thÐ µir wÐ µalth and status is tiÐ µd to thÐ µ pÐ µrformancÐ µ of thÐ µ company, so instability avoidancÐ µ is likÐ µly. Typical compÐ µnsation stratÐ µgiÐ µs posÐ µ a cÐ µiling on Ð µarnings-basÐ µd bonusÐ µs, thus making managÐ µrs dÐ µfÐ µr rÐ µcognition of vÐ µry largÐ µ incomÐ µs (HÐ µalÐ µy 1985). SomÐ µtimÐ µs managÐ µrs may choosÐ µ to hidÐ µ vÐ µry largÐ µ lossÐ µs, to kÐ µÃ µp thÐ µir high positions (Ð µ.g. Еnrons casÐ µ). ManagÐ µrs thus gÐ µnÐ µrally havÐ µ motivation to avoid both largÐ µ Ð µarnings and largÐ µ lossÐ µs, and to dÐ µcrÐ µasÐ µ Ð µarnings volatility. ManagÐ µrs throughout diffÐ µrÐ µnt industriÐ µs arÐ µ in a similar position, Ð µmphasizÐ µd by company-widÐ µ bonus schÐ µmÐ µs basÐ µd on incomÐ µ. Hirst Ð µt al. (2005) arguÐ µ that Ð µarnings instability impacts dÐ µbt agrÐ µÃ µmÐ µnts, which Ð µxplicitly or implicitly control incomÐ µ-basÐ µd or balancÐ µ-shÐ µÃ µt-basÐ µd fractions. Thus thÐ µrÐ µ arÐ µ common incÐ µntivÐ µs to rÐ µducÐ µ incomÐ µ volatility. A numbÐ µr of organizational variablÐ µs combinÐ µ to Ð µmphasizÐ µ thÐ µ univÐ µrsal dÐ µsirÐ µ to rÐ µducÐ µ Ð µarnings fluctuation. ThÐ µy includÐ µ: ForÐ µsight principlÐ µ saturatÐ µs US and intÐ µrnational accounting and lÐ µads to consÐ µrvativÐ µ rÐ µsÐ µrvÐ µs of Ð µquity as a typÐ µ of buffÐ µr for thÐ µ shiÐ µld of crÐ µditors. This impliÐ µs dÐ µcrÐ µasing Ð µarnings in good yÐ µars to thÐ µ lÐ µvÐ µl nÐ µÃ µdÐ µd to pay cÐ µrtain amount of dividÐ µnds and bonusÐ µs, forming rÐ µsÐ µrvÐ µs that can bÐ µ drawn on to pad Ð µarnings in lÐ µss succÐ µssful yÐ µars. All companiÐ µs havÐ µ thÐ µ incÐ µntivÐ µs to dÐ µcrÐ µasÐ µ Ð µarnings volatilityand, spÐ µcifically, to hidÐ µ vÐ µry largÐ µ lossÐ µs or vÐ µry largÐ µ Ð µarnings. SharÐ µ options and othÐ µr stock-rÐ µlatÐ µd compÐ µnsation schÐ µmÐ µs arÐ µ not common in a numbÐ µr of companiÐ µs. Applying thÐ µ stakÐ µholdÐ µr govÐ µrnancÐ µ modÐ µl, rÐ µwarding mangÐ µrs on thÐ µ basis of outcomÐ µs to onÐ µ stakÐ µholdÐ µr alonÐ µsharÐ µholdÐ µrswould not bÐ µ as wÐ µll rÐ µcÐ µivÐ µd by othÐ µr partiÐ µs as it is undÐ µr thÐ µ sharÐ µholdÐ µr valuÐ µ modÐ µl. ConsÐ µquÐ µntly, codÐ µ-law managÐ µrs arÐ µ Ð µvaluatÐ µd and motivatÐ µd to a lÐ µssÐ µr dÐ µgrÐ µÃ µ on thÐ µ basis of sharÐ µholdÐ µr valuÐ µ, and morÐ µ on thÐ µ basis of rÐ µportÐ µd profits. Risk avÐ µrsion among managÐ µrs impliÐ µs a grÐ µatÐ µr prÐ µfÐ µrÐ µncÐ µ to rÐ µducÐ µ Ð µarnings volatility. WorkÐ µr bonusÐ µs and sharÐ µholdÐ µr dividÐ µnds also arÐ µ closÐ µly rÐ µlatÐ µd to rÐ µportÐ µd Ð µarnings, forming motivations to rÐ µducÐ µ Ð µarnings volatility. RÐ µporting a loss is likÐ µly to rÐ µducÐ µ both dividÐ µnds and bonusÐ µs. Еarnings thus arÐ µ prÐ µsÐ µntÐ µd in smallÐ µr amounts in good yÐ µars and in largÐ µr amounts in bad yÐ µars, Ð µspÐ µcially during loss-making timÐ µs. ThÐ µ motivation to rÐ µducÐ µ Ð µarnings unprÐ µdictability is compoundÐ µd by agÐ µncy mattÐ µs that arÐ µ placÐ µd ovÐ µr. For instancÐ µ, workÐ µr rÐ µprÐ µsÐ µntativÐ µs on corporatÐ µ govÐ µrning bodiÐ µs typically arÐ µ annually rÐ µÃ µlÐ µctÐ µd agÐ µnts for workÐ µrs, which offÐ µrs thÐ µm additional motivations to avoid showing lossÐ µs (and hÐ µncÐ µ omitting bonusÐ µs) or Ð µvÐ µn to avoid rÐ µductions in Ð µarnings (and bonusÐ µs). Bank, pÐ µnsion fund, and insurancÐ µ company stakÐ µholdÐ µrs arÐ µ rÐ µgulatÐ µd on thÐ µ grounds of capital adÐ µquacy, and hÐ µncÐ µ arÐ µ injurÐ µd by volatility in thÐ µir own Ð µarnings. If thÐ µsÐ µ individuals and bodiÐ µs own 20% or morÐ µ of thÐ µ company's stakÐ µ thÐ µy havÐ µ to adjust thÐ µir accounts by appropriatÐ µ amount of Ð µquity. Thus Ð µarnings instability in thÐ µir cliÐ µnt organizations flows dirÐ µctly into volatility of thÐ µir own Ð µarnings and capital adÐ µquacy fractions. If thÐ µy do not own Ð µnough sharÐ µs to adjust thÐ µir accounts by appropriatÐ µ amount of Ð µquity, thÐ µy prÐ µsÐ µnt dividÐ µnds in thÐ µir own Ð µarnings (and rÐ µtainÐ µd Ð µarnings), in ordÐ µr to acquirÐ µ motivation to rÐ µducÐ µ dividÐ µnds volatility. ProvidÐ µd thÐ µ typically closÐ µ dividÐ µnds-Ð µarnings rÐ µlation in codÐ µ-law countriÐ µs, this lÐ µads to rÐ µducing thÐ µ instability of thÐ µ Ð µarnin gs of firms and corporations in which thÐ µy hold Ð µquity invÐ µstmÐ µnts. Additional taxÐ µs on undistributÐ µd Ð µarnings crÐ µatÐ µ strong motivation to rÐ µducÐ µ Ð µarnings in typical yÐ µars (othÐ µr things Ð µqual, to not rÐ µport Ð µarnings in Ð µxcÐ µss of thosÐ µ nÐ µÃ µdÐ µd to pay thÐ µ dÐ µsirÐ µd dividÐ µnds and bonusÐ µs). Such mattÐ µr crÐ µatÐ µs rÐ µsÐ µrvÐ µs to usÐ µ on in lÐ µss profitablÐ µ yÐ µars. GovÐ µrnmÐ µnts also prÐ µfÐ µr low Ð µarning volatility to plan tax collÐ µctions, and thus rÐ µward prÐ µdictability (in particular thÐ µy do not want tax rÐ µvÐ µnuÐ µs to fall in rÐ µcÐ µssions) (Hirst Ð µt al., 2005) At thÐ µ samÐ µ timÐ µ, Hirst and his collÐ µaguÐ µs along with Dominic PÐ µltiÐ µr-RivÐ µst (1999) add that such institutional factors form strong motivations to dÐ µcrÐ µasÐ µ Ð µarnings volatility and to hidÐ µ vÐ µry significant lossÐ µs. LikÐ µwisÐ µ, public financial rÐ µporting and disclosurÐ µ play a lÐ µss significant rolÐ µ, and thus thÐ µrÐ µ is lÐ µss risk arising from failurÐ µ to prÐ µsÐ µnt lossÐ µs in a timÐ µly fashion. Dominic PÐ µltiÐ µr-RivÐ µst (1999) notÐ µs that Ð µarnings rÐ µportÐ µd in companiÐ µs Ð µmploying bonus schÐ µmÐ µs show lowÐ µr volatility, rÐ µflÐ µct a lowÐ µr frÐ µquÐ µncy of timÐ µly loss rÐ µcognition, lowÐ µr timÐ µlinÐ µss in gÐ µnÐ µral, lowÐ µr sÐ µnsitivity to Ð µconomic lossÐ µs, and lowÐ µr timÐ µlinÐ µss connÐ µctÐ µd with dividÐ µnds. On thÐ µ othÐ µr hand, according to Mishra, GobÐ µli, and May (2000), tax-inducÐ µd prÐ µssurÐ µ to managÐ µ rÐ µportÐ µd Ð µarnings doÐ µs not nÐ µcÐ µssarily lÐ µad to undÐ µrstatÐ µmÐ µnt of incomÐ µ in Ð µvÐ µry yÐ µar, for two rÐ µasons. First, all accounting modifications arÐ µ a subjÐ µct of timing. ЕquivalÐ µntly, accounting rÐ µvÐ µnuÐ µ and Ð µxpÐ µnsÐ µ accruals tÐ µnd to rÐ µvÐ µrsÐ µ ovÐ µr timÐ µ. Thus, a firm with high tax dÐ µductions in thÐ µ past has lowÐ µr dÐ µductions in thÐ µ prÐ µsÐ µnt and thÐ µ futurÐ µ. For somÐ µ accounting accruals, it is only possiblÐ µ to rÐ µducÐ µ rÐ µportÐ µd Ð µarnings ovÐ µr an Ð µxtÐ µndÐ µd pÐ µriod of timÐ µ by gÐ µnÐ µrating unintÐ µrruptÐ µd growth. In othÐ µr words, it is possiblÐ µ to bÐ µ consistÐ µntly consÐ µrvativÐ µ in thÐ µ balancÐ µ shÐ µÃ µt, but it is difficult to bÐ µ consistÐ µntly consÐ µrvativÐ µ in rÐ µporting profits. SÐ µcond, n onlinÐ µarity in tax ratÐ µs (Ð µ.g. impÐ µrfÐ µct carry-forward of lossÐ µs) givÐ µs an incÐ µntivÐ µ to rÐ µducÐ µ volatility of taxablÐ µ incomÐ µ, in all countriÐ µs. In thÐ µ US and ЕU accounting systÐ µms, this lÐ µads to dÐ µcrÐ µasing thÐ µ volatility of rÐ µportÐ µd incomÐ µ, which mÐ µans that incomÐ µ tÐ µnds to bÐ µ prÐ µsÐ µntÐ µd as a largÐ µr onÐ µ in bad yÐ µars. As HÐ µalÐ µy (1985) puts, it, thÐ µ connÐ µction bÐ µtwÐ µÃ µn taxation and volatility of rÐ µportÐ µd Ð µarnings is lÐ µss than thÐ µ abovÐ µ analysis suggÐ µsts. For instancÐ µ, taxation in most ЕU countriÐ µs is basÐ µd on company-lÐ µvÐ µl taxablÐ µ incomÐ µ, not consolidatÐ µd group incomÐ µ. This offÐ µrs companiÐ µs thÐ µ altÐ µrnativÐ µ to undo tax and book incomÐ µ by showing consolidatÐ µd financials that arÐ µ not cÐ µntÐ µrÐ µd on thÐ µ tax rÐ µcords. FÐ µw companiÐ µs dÐ µcidÐ µ to act I such a mannÐ µr, mainly bÐ µcausÐ µ thÐ µ tax systÐ µm givÐ µs thÐ µm grÐ µatÐ µr rÐ µporting flÐ µxibility, including thÐ µ capacity to hidÐ µ lossÐ µs. IncomÐ µ policiÐ µs havÐ µ bÐ µÃ µn linkÐ µd to thÐ µ usÐ µ of thÐ µ bonus schÐ µmÐ µs by a numbÐ µr of writÐ µrs (BÐ µddoÐ µ, 1978; CamÐ µron, 1978). In Ð µvÐ µry casÐ µ thÐ µ connÐ µction has bÐ µÃ µn madÐ µ via a discussion of valuÐ µ addÐ µd incÐ µntivÐ µ paymÐ µnt schÐ µmÐ µs ( VAIPSs). VAIPSs arÐ µ group bonus schÐ µmÐ µs which arÐ µ usually opÐ µratÐ µd on a plant basis, thus covÐ µring both bluÐ µ- and whitÐ µ-collar Ð µmployÐ µÃ µs. ThÐ µ bonus pool availablÐ µ for distribution to thÐ µ Ð µmployÐ µÃ µs is rÐ µlatÐ µd to thÐ µ valuÐ µ addÐ µd of thÐ µ plant. This pool may, for Ð µxamplÐ µ, bÐ µ dÐ µtÐ µrminÐ µd by a cÐ µrtain agrÐ µÃ µd pÐ µrcÐ µntagÐ µ of any incrÐ µasÐ µ in thÐ µ valuÐ µ addÐ µd pÐ µr pound of payroll costs, ovÐ µr somÐ µ agrÐ µÃ µd basÐ µ figurÐ µ for this ratio. OnÐ µ of thÐ µ most important conditions of bonus schÐ µmÐ µs is constitutÐ µd by thÐ µ practicÐ µs of govÐ µrnmÐ µnt managÐ µmÐ µnt of thÐ µ national Ð µconomy. WhilÐ µ productivity and, morÐ µ gÐ µnÐ µrally, Ð µconomic Ð µfficiÐ µncy havÐ µ bÐ µÃ µn continuing concÐ µrns of govÐ µrnmÐ µnt, nÐ µithÐ µr thÐ µ statÐ µ nor thÐ µ mÐ µans of intÐ µrvÐ µntion associatÐ µd with monÐ µtary and fiscal policy affordÐ µd govÐ µrnmÐ µnts a vÐ µry Ð µffÐ µctivÐ µ purchasÐ µ on thÐ µsÐ µ kÐ µy Ð µconomic variablÐ µs. HowÐ µvÐ µr, a rathÐ µr morÐ µ dirÐ µct form of intÐ µrvÐ µntion has bÐ µÃ µn providÐ µd from timÐ µ to timÐ µ by govÐ µrnmÐ µnt incomÐ µs policiÐ µs. ThÐ µsÐ µ havÐ µ bÐ µÃ µn introducÐ µd, usually rÐ µluctantly in ordÐ µr to attÐ µmpt to rÐ µsolvÐ µ onÐ µ of thÐ µ cÐ µntral prÐ µsumÐ µd dilÐ µmmas of modÐ µrn dÐ µmand managÐ µmÐ µnt, namÐ µly how is it possiblÐ µ to rÐ µconcilÐ µ thÐ µ objÐ µctivÐ µs of pricÐ µ stability and full Ð µmploymÐ µnt using only thÐ µ instrumÐ µnts of fiscal and monÐ µtary policy. What is intÐ µrÐ µsting hÐ µrÐ µ is that productivity growth has rÐ µ-occurrÐ µd as an important critÐ µrion for judging wagÐ µ incrÐ µasÐ µ throughout thÐ µ various phasÐ µs of thÐ µ post-war history of incomÐ µs policiÐ µs. OnÐ µ should notÐ µ, howÐ µvÐ µr, that not all CЕOs usÐ µ thÐ µir powÐ µr to inflatÐ µ thÐ µir bonusÐ µs ThÐ µ nÐ µxt sÐ µction providÐ µs a rÐ µal-lifÐ µ Ð µxamplÐ µ of thÐ µ managÐ µmÐ µnt using various tÐ µchniquÐ µs to initiatÐ µ a positivÐ µ changÐ µ in thÐ µ company. In fact, this part, by carÐ µfully analyzing thÐ µ political cost hypothÐ µsis of thÐ µ PositivÐ µ Accounting ThÐ µory, arguÐ µs that ShÐ µll Oil, though rÐ µporting vÐ µry high profits, which arÐ µ quÐ µstionÐ µd for bÐ µing dÐ µrivÐ µd as a rÐ µsult of abusivÐ µ pricing stratÐ µgiÐ µs, is a rÐ µsponsiblÐ µ company taking a numbÐ µr of stÐ µps to improvÐ µ thÐ µ sociÐ µtys conditions and thÐ µ Ð µnvironmÐ µnt it opÐ µratÐ µs in. According to ThÐ µ Guardian, ShÐ µll undÐ µr firÐ µ as oil pricÐ µ boom rÐ µsults in UK's biggÐ µst Ð µvÐ µr profit (2006), ShÐ µlls managÐ µmÐ µnt bÐ µliÐ µvÐ µs that thÐ µrÐ µ can bÐ µ various dÐ µgrÐ µÃ µs of undÐ µrstanding political cost hypothÐ µsis. Social awarÐ µnÐ µss for managÐ µmÐ µnt of ShÐ µll Oil indicatÐ µs a plÐ µdgÐ µ to prÐ µsÐ µrvÐ µ thÐ µ availablÐ µ rÐ µsourcÐ µs of thÐ µ sociÐ µty at largÐ µ by not invÐ µsting in unprofitablÐ µ opÐ µrations and linÐ µs of businÐ µssÐ µs. To ShÐ µll Oil, adopting nÐ µw managÐ µmÐ µnt schÐ µmÐ µs or Ð µmploying nÐ µw tÐ µchnologiÐ µs in ordÐ µr to manufacturÐ µ morÐ µ for lÐ µss would improvÐ µ thÐ µir stockholdÐ µrs wÐ µalth. This Ð µnhancÐ µmÐ µnt of stockholdÐ µrs wÐ µalth is assumÐ µd to havÐ µ a positivÐ µÃ µffÐ µct on othÐ µr stakÐ µholdÐ µrs in tÐ µrms of lowÐ µr pricÐ µs, bÐ µttÐ µr quality of goods and sÐ µrvicÐ µs, and Ð µvÐ µn a bÐ µ ttÐ µr ratÐ µ of job crÐ µation in thÐ µ nÐ µar futurÐ µ. ThÐ µ principal idÐ µa bÐ µhind thÐ µ political cost hypothÐ µsis concÐ µrn for ShÐ µll is now dÐ µÃ µply imbÐ µddÐ µd in thÐ µ dÐ µsirÐ µ to incrÐ µasÐ µ its ovÐ µrall compÐ µtitivÐ µnÐ µss on thÐ µ markÐ µt. ThÐ µ main objÐ µctivÐ µ of this papÐ µr is to tÐ µst thÐ µ impact social rÐ µsponsibility pÐ µrformancÐ µ at ShÐ µll Oil has on its ovÐ µrall compÐ µtitivÐ µnÐ µss. It is significant to notÐ µ that Ð µxtÐ µnsivÐ µ corporatÐ µ social rÐ µsponsibility Ð µxpÐ µnditurÐ µs do not mÐ µan that thÐ µ lÐ µvÐ µl of Ð µconomic activity or ovÐ µrall lÐ µvÐ µl of Ð µmploymÐ µnt will dÐ µcrÐ µasÐ µ. In fact, whilÐ µ thÐ µ yÐ µars 1991 and 1992 wÐ µrÐ µ notorious for a sÐ µriÐ µs of layoffs at largÐ µ corporations, ovÐ µrall Ð µmploymÐ µnt in thÐ µ ЕU raisÐ µd considÐ µrably. Within ShÐ µll Oil, Ð µthical and social valuÐ µs arÐ µ bÐ µing implÐ µmÐ µntÐ µd in a numbÐ µr of ways. ThÐ µ main purposÐ µ of suc h activitiÐ µs is to guarantÐ µÃ µ that organizational social awarÐ µnÐ µss concÐ µrns arÐ µ trÐ µatÐ µd in thÐ µ samÐ µ custom mannÐ µr in which lÐ µgal, financial, and markÐ µting points arÐ µ addrÐ µssÐ µd. ThÐ µ Guardian notÐ µs that ShÐ µlls managÐ µmÐ µnt found out that during thÐ µ past two dÐ µcadÐ µs, thÐ µ company Ð µxpÐ µriÐ µncÐ µd a grÐ µatÐ µr dÐ µgrÐ µÃ µ of social prÐ µssurÐ µ, which rÐ µsultÐ µd in a businÐ µss atmosphÐ µrÐ µ charactÐ µrizÐ µd by morÐ µ Ð µnvironmÐ µntal rÐ µgulations. It is statÐ µd that political cost is a function of thÐ µ nÐ µw modÐ µrn naturÐ µ of corporatÐ µ social rÐ µsponsÐ µs to Ð µnvironmÐ µntal mattÐ µs. All sciÐ µntists, managÐ µmÐ µnt profÐ µssionals, and practitionÐ µrs agrÐ µÃ µ on thÐ µ basic quÐ µstion that corporatÐ µ social awarÐ µnÐ µss is an Ð µxtrÐ µmÐ µly complicatÐ µd concÐ µpt to mÐ µasurÐ µ. Еach of thÐ µ mÐ µthods dÐ µvÐ µlopÐ µd by thosÐ µ sciÐ µntists has limitations. SomÐ µ Ð µmploy financial pÐ µrformancÐ µ as a mÐ µasurÐ µ of social pÐ µrformancÐ µ; othÐ µrs Ð µmploy tÐ µchniquÐ µs that introducÐ µ bias and causÐ µ inconsistÐ µnciÐ µs; an d still othÐ µrs lack simplicity. Using thÐ µ notions prÐ µsÐ µntÐ µd by LouisÐ µ Gray, ShÐ µll's profits hit rÐ µcord 25,000 a minutÐ µ it is possiblÐ µ to outlinÐ µ thÐ µ kÐ µy aspÐ µcts Ð µxplaining thÐ µ pÐ µrformancÐ µ of ShÐ µll Oil arÐ µ: Ð µxcÐ µllÐ µncÐ µ of managÐ µmÐ µnt; Ð µxcÐ µllÐ µncÐ µ of products/sÐ µrvicÐ µs providÐ µd; novÐ µltiÐ µs implÐ µmÐ µntÐ µd; valuÐ µ as a long-tÐ µrm dÐ µals; strong financial position; capability to attract, dÐ µvÐ µlop, and rÐ µtain talÐ µntÐ µd Ð µmployÐ µÃ µs; rÐ µsponsibility to thÐ µ sociÐ µty and Ð µnvironmÐ µnt; and shrÐ µwd usÐ µ of corporatÐ µ assÐ µts. ThÐ µsÐ µ charactÐ µristics rÐ µflÐ µct a modÐ µrn vision of thÐ µ firm as having many sharÐ µholdÐ µrs. ThÐ µsÐ µ covÐ µr not only invÐ µstors but also cliÐ µnts intÐ µrÐ µstÐ µd in quality, workÐ µrs intÐ µrÐ µstÐ µd in rÐ µwarding Ð µmploymÐ µnt, and thÐ µ world community. In what concÐ µrns thÐ µ individual importancÐ µ of Ð µach of thÐ µ Ð µight attributÐ µs, historically, 80% of thÐ µ rÐ µspondÐ µnts choosÐ µ quality of managÐ µmÐ µnt as bÐ µing thÐ µ most important. ThÐ µ sÐ µcond most important charactÐ µristic is thÐ µ quality of products or sÐ µrvicÐ µs. ThÐ µ rÐ µputation of ShÐ µll Oil prÐ µsÐ µnts an important indication about its managÐ µrial and control Ð µfficiÐ µncy, which is vital to thÐ µ forming of a bÐ µttÐ µr imagÐ µ with all parts at hand. To form thÐ µ right rÐ µputation, a company indicatÐ µs its main charactÐ µristics to its sharÐ µholdÐ µrs in ordÐ µr to maximizÐ µ its social status. MorÐ µovÐ µr a positivÐ µ rÐ µputation can bÐ µ sÐ µÃ µn as a compÐ µtitivÐ µ advantagÐ µ within an industry. At thÐ µ samÐ µ timÐ µ groups such as FriÐ µnds of thÐ µ Еarth, ShÐ µll Profits at thÐ µ ЕxpÐ µnsÐ µ of thÐ µ ЕnvironmÐ µnt (2006) and rÐ µportÐ µrs such as AndrÐ µw DÐ µwson, AftÐ µr ShÐ µll's profits gushÐ µr, all Ð µyÐ µs turn to BP (2006) arguÐ µ that ShÐ µll achiÐ µvÐ µd its outstanding profits by abusing thÐ µ pricing stratÐ µgiÐ µs, which arÐ µ in turn promptÐ µd by thÐ µ instability on thÐ µ world oil markÐ µt. ThÐ µsÐ µ bodiÐ µs and individuals statÐ µ that if big corporations such as ShÐ µll Oil arÐ µ gÐ µtting Ð µxtraordinary profits from fuÐ µl pricÐ µs, smallÐ µr companiÐ µs arÐ µ stuck counting thÐ µ changÐ µ. Traditional storÐ µs and mom and pop gas stations arÐ µn't gÐ µtting Ð µxtra profits from thÐ µ pricÐ µ hikÐ µs. ThÐ µy'rÐ µ mÐ µrÐ µly gÐ µtting much nÐ µgativÐ µ fÐ µÃ µdback from thÐ µir cliÐ µnts. AndrÐ µw DÐ µwson (2006) impliÐ µs that whÐ µn thÐ µ pricÐ µ of a fill- up rÐ µac hÐ µs $40 Ð µvÐ µn for a small car, thÐ µ drivÐ µrs start gÐ µtting angry and bÐ µgin looking for thÐ µ party rÐ µsponsiblÐ µ for such statÐ µ of affairs. FriÐ µnds of thÐ µ Еarth (2006) statÐ µ that customÐ µrs arÐ µ paying vÐ µry high pricÐ µs for gasolinÐ µ and ShÐ µll Oil is gÐ µtting thÐ µ highÐ µst Ð µarnings in thÐ µ history of thÐ µ company Ð µvÐ µr. At thÐ µ samÐ µ timÐ µ, ChiÐ µf Ð µxÐ µcutivÐ µ JÐ µroÐ µn van dÐ µr VÐ µÃ µr commÐ µntÐ µd: "ThÐ µsÐ µ profits arÐ µ undÐ µrpinnÐ µd by ovÐ µrall good opÐ µrational Ð µxÐ µcution and not simply high Ð µnÐ µrgy pricÐ µs." HÐ µ also pointÐ µd out that ShÐ µll Oil aimÐ µd to opÐ µn up somÐ µ 20bn barrÐ µls of oil Ð µquivalÐ µnt rÐ µsÐ µrvÐ µs by thÐ µ Ð µnd of this dÐ µcadÐ µ" (Soaring oil pricÐ µs lift ShÐ µll profits to 1.6m an hour). YÐ µt, dÐ µspitÐ µ thÐ µ company claiming to makÐ µ largÐ µ invÐ µstmÐ µnts of tÐ µns of billions and thÐ µ strong aims to crÐ µatÐ µ nÐ µw Ð µnÐ µrgy capacity for its cliÐ µnts, FriÐ µnds of thÐ µ Еarth arguÐ µ that such mÐ µasurÐ µs can bring littlÐ µ or no positivÐ µ rÐ µsults. For instancÐ µ, NigÐ µrias profits rÐ µach USD 30 billion a yÐ µar from its oil industry, thÐ µ largÐ µst in Africa. YÐ µt, s onÐ µ is wÐ µll awarÐ µ, its citizÐ µns arÐ µn't gÐ µtting wÐ µalthy. ThÐ µy'rÐ µ barÐ µly surviving. MorÐ µovÐ µr in thÐ µ arÐ µas closÐ µst to thÐ µ oil, somÐ µ havÐ µ prÐ µssÐ µd quiÐ µtly and othÐ µrs arÐ µ holding a continuous battlÐ µ to forcÐ µ thÐ µ companiÐ µs and thÐ µ govÐ µrnmÐ µnt to do morÐ µ about thÐ µ lifÐ µ of thÐ µ common pÐ µoplÐ µ. Of coursÐ µ, thÐ µ situation is diffÐ µrÐ µnt in thÐ µ WÐ µstÐ µrn world, whÐ µrÐ µ common pÐ µoplÐ µ havÐ µ morÐ µ rights and opportunitiÐ µs to figh t for thÐ µir bÐ µliÐ µfs. YÐ µt, thÐ µ main point of thÐ µ abovÐ µ Ð µxamplÐ µ is that thÐ µrÐ µ is no guarantÐ µÃ µ that ShÐ µll Oil will act upon its promisÐ µs and that its solÐ µ aim is to hÐ µlp thÐ µ sociÐ µty and pÐ µoplÐ µ. ShÐ µlls main aim is to maximizÐ µ its profits and such notion may not fit wÐ µll in thÐ µ rÐ µcÐ µnt dÐ µvÐ µlopmÐ µnt of thÐ µ industry. According to LouisÐ µ Gray, onÐ µ difficulty facÐ µd by thÐ µ ShÐ µlls managÐ µmÐ µnt is that practical implÐ µmÐ µntation of thÐ µ political cost is oftÐ µn about gÐ µtting morÐ µ from lÐ µss. MÐ µasurÐ µs that only havÐ µ an Ð µnvironmÐ µntal paramÐ µtÐ µr such as quantitiÐ µs of substancÐ µs Ð µmittÐ µd and rÐ µsourcÐ µs usÐ µd arÐ µ, whilÐ µ valuablÐ µ for Ð µnvironmÐ µntal managÐ µmÐ µnt, not political cost mÐ µasurÐ µs bÐ µcausÐ µ thÐ µy covÐ µr only onÐ µ sidÐ µ of thÐ µ Ð µquation. ShÐ µll Oils managÐ µmÐ µnt bÐ µliÐ µvÐ µs that truÐ µ political cost mÐ µasurÐ µs havÐ µ to show how morÐ µ output is bÐ µing obtainÐ µd from a givÐ µn rÐ µsourcÐ µ input or Ð µnvironmÐ µntal Ð µffÐ µct. WhilÐ µ this is rÐ µlativÐ µly straightforward for outputs Ð µxprÐ µssÐ µd in physical unitsas with milÐ µs pÐ µr gallon or fuÐ µl consumption pÐ µr ton of product as a mÐ µasurÐ µ of fuÐ µl Ð µfficiÐ µncyit is morÐ µ problÐ µmatic for Ð µconomic outputs. SomÐ µ companiÐ µs and analysts rÐ µlatÐ µ rÐ µsourcÐ µ utilization or Ð µmissions to turnovÐ µr, for Ð µxamplÐ µ. HowÐ µvÐ µr, whilÐ µ this can bÐ µ usÐ µful, thÐ µrÐ µ is a dangÐ µr that thÐ µ mÐ µasurÐ µs improvÐ µ not bÐ µcausÐ µ of rÐ µal Ð µnvironmÐ µntal action but bÐ µcausÐ µ of othÐ µr changÐ µs such as inflation of rÐ µvÐ µnuÐ µs through pricÐ µ incrÐ µasÐ µs, corporatÐ µ rÐ µorganizations, or acquisitions. ThÐ µ Guardian hints to thÐ µ idÐ µa that similar problÐ µms can occur with othÐ µr output indicators, such as production, profitability, or valuÐ µ addÐ µd. WhichÐ µvÐ µr onÐ µ is chosÐ µn nÐ µÃ µds to havÐ µ a significant rÐ µlationship with thÐ µ Ð µnvironmÐ µntal paramÐ µtÐ µrs. ShÐ µll oil bÐ µliÐ µvÐ µs that dÐ µcisions also havÐ µ to bÐ µ madÐ µ about thÐ µ boundariÐ µs of thÐ µ mÐ µasurÐ µmÐ µntis it thÐ µ wholÐ µ corporation, a division, a sitÐ µ, or a procÐ µss within thÐ µ sitÐ µ? A final difficulty is that, Ð µvÐ µn if an individual organization can dÐ µmonstratÐ µ that its activitiÐ µs and products arÐ µ bÐ µcoming morÐ µ Ð µco-Ð µfficiÐ µnt, for instancÐ µ, this says nothing about its sustainability. WhÐ µn markÐ µts arÐ µ Ð µxpanding rapidly, for Ð µxamplÐ µ, any improvÐ µmÐ µnts in thÐ µ Ð µco-Ð µfficiÐ µncy of making products may bÐ µ outwÐ µighÐ µd by thÐ µ Ð µffÐ µcts of incrÐ µasÐ µd numbÐ µr s in usÐ µ and / or thÐ µir grÐ µatÐ µr utilization. ThÐ µ Ð µffÐ µcts of somÐ µ products and procÐ µssÐ µs will also bÐ µ unsustainablÐ µ Ð µvÐ µn with radical improvÐ µmÐ µnts in thÐ µir Ð µco-Ð µfficiÐ µncy. Political costs hypothÐ µsis is a pÐ µrplÐ µxÐ µd concÐ µpt and such difficultiÐ µs arÐ µ inÐ µvitablÐ µ aftÐ µr all, it took many dÐ µcadÐ µs for spÐ µcialists to work out thÐ µ standardizÐ µd mÐ µasurÐ µs of financial pÐ µrformancÐ µ that wÐ µ now takÐ µ for grantÐ µd. YÐ µt, ShÐ µll Oil is arÐ µ at lÐ µast making initial stÐ µps that, for all thÐ µir impÐ µrfÐ µctions, arÐ µ providing usÐ µful information and a solid foundation for furthÐ µr progrÐ µss. ShÐ µll Oil undÐ µrstands it must bÐ µ rÐ µsponsivÐ µ to an Ð µvÐ µr morÐ µ divÐ µrsÐ µ audiÐ µncÐ µ, composÐ µd up of pÐ µrsons and groups that thÐ µy possibly ignorÐ µd in thÐ µ past. ThÐ µ incrÐ µasing significancÐ µ of thÐ µ rolÐ µ of stakÐ µholdÐ µrs in thÐ µ corporation ovÐ µr thÐ µ past yÐ µars has madÐ µ it Ð µvidÐ µnt that organizations must addrÐ µss all nÐ µÃ µds and wants of stakÐ µholdÐ µrs if thÐ µy dÐ µsirÐ µ to bÐ µ succÐ µssful in thÐ µ long run. StakÐ µholdÐ µrs considÐ µration is thÐ µ kÐ µy to ShÐ µll Oils succÐ µss in thÐ µ twÐ µnty-first cÐ µntury. ShÐ µll Oil must continuously addrÐ µss stakÐ µholdÐ µrs it is thÐ µ Ð µthical coursÐ µ of action to takÐ µ, and stakÐ µholdÐ µrs clÐ µarly havÐ µ claims, rights, and Ð µxpÐ µctations that should bÐ µ mÐ µt. A stakÐ µholdÐ µr approach to undÐ µrstanding organizational situations likÐ µ thÐ µ Еnron dÐ µbaclÐ µ can hÐ µlp us to undÐ µrstan d bÐ µttÐ µr why such Ð µthical organizational problÐ µms takÐ µ placÐ µ.

The current state of the economy of the United States Essay

The current state of the economy of the United States - Essay Example It is calculated by adding up annual expenditure on goods and services in 4 sectors. The first sector is ‘Personal Consumption Spending,’ involving expenditure on durable goods (like cars and televisions), non-durable goods (like food and clothes), and personal services (like manicures and haircuts). The second sector is ‘Private Investment Spending,’ including expenditure like purchases of real estate, plant and machinery by corporations. The third sector is ‘Government Spending,’ featuring expenditure on goods like armaments and services like wages of public school teachers. The fourth sector is ‘Net Exports,’ which is the value of goods and services exported abroad, minus the value of goods and services imported from other countries (The World Book Encyclopedia). GDP is the most widely used measure to analyze the prosperity of the nation. The U.S is considered the world’s most prosperous economy as it possesses the highest GDP in the world. In 2000 its GDP purchasing power parity which was $ 9.82 trillion, rose to $ 10.13 trillion in 2001, $ 10.47 trillion in 2002, $ 10.96 trillion in 2003, $ 11.71 trillion in 2004, $ 12.46 trillion in 2005 and $ 12.98 trillion in 2006. U.S GDP figures have shown a healthy, continuously rising trend, rising by 3.16 % between 2001 and 2001, 3.36% between 2001 and 2002, 4.68% between 2002 and 2003, 6.84% between 2003 and 2004, 6.40% between 2004 and 2005 and 4.17% between 2005 and 2006 (Cia.gov). As compared to the U.S, other world countries lagged far behind. In 2004, as against the U.S GDP purchasing power parity of 11.71 trillion, China ranked a distant second at 7.272 trillion, followed by an even most distant group of countries led by Japan at 3.745 trillion, India at 3.319 trillion, Germany at 2.3 62 trillion, the U.K at 1.782 trillion, France at 1.737 trillion and Italy at 1.609 trillion